1. Introduction

ducators, as a part of the education system, seek to get the greatest results in teaching. They engage in a variety of activities and initiatives. Employing homework to assist learning beyond the class is one of the frequent attempts and actions that instructors make for any kind of learning including English. Homework is any assignment provided by educators for pupils to complete outside of school hours [1]. Homework is likely to entail complicated interaction [2]. It means that homework includes the interplay of several learning aspects.

Homework is regarded as one of the rituals (namely, customary activities) in schools [3]. Homework is a long-standing educational institution that was rarely addressed until lately. It may be stated that homework has long been seen as an essential component of education [4]. With the exception of English, these studies [5, 6] largely concentrated on primary and secondary school assignments and the perspectives of both teachers and students on assignments. EFL assignments, however, have received very little attention so far [7]. It is uncertain how much EFL assignments influence students’ achievement.

It is significant to mention that during this study, the terms “assignment” and “homework” are used synonymously. In the literature, a number of definitions of homework and assignments have been given. In general, are written or oral tasks that students complete outside of class after being given them by their teachers [3].

Typically, teachers give homework in the traditional system known as “traditional homework,” especially to students in primary and secondary schools by selecting activities from their books [8]. A significant amount of study has been undertaken in recent decades on the role of conventional homework to learners’ involvement and academic progress [9]. Nonetheless, on homework its both beneficial and bad effects on children’ learning. According to the literature, doing homework assignments benefits pupils of all grade levels. Greater self-efficacy/regulation abilities (e.g., planning), classroom engagement (e.g., concentration, class involvement), and industriousness (e.g., being cautious, diligent etc.) are all advantages [10]. Nevertheless, current evidence warns that homework might have a harmful impact on pupils, particularly when its qualities are poorly balanced (e.g., amount, degree of difficulty, instructional purpose). Delay, bad feelings, physiological tiredness, and stress to do assignments and surpass might indeed have adverse consequences, including plagiarized comments from other pupils [11]. Notwithstanding that, homework is seen as an important educational technique that promotes academic progress and achievement. Learners who finish their homework on a routine schedule likely to outperform their peers who do not give their best [12]. Additionally, prior studies have indicated that, with the development of web-based technologies, particularly for almost 20 years, numerous researchers, teachers, and experts choose utilizing online assignments over pen and paper assignments .

As part of this process, many software programs were created to provide web-based instructional systems for educational settings [13]. As a result, many educators have begun to replace traditional methods with distant education tools such as online material sharing, online assessment, and online assignments. These technologies support educators in dealing with the rising number of learners for every classroom as well as the organizational strain [14]. As it comes to homework, for illustration, using an electronic or internet-based format provides significant advantages for teachers (e. g., reduced time required to replicate, transmit, and gather assignment; shorter duration to verify tasks; delivery of on-time and individualized feedback) when compared to the traditional style [15]. The price of using an online resource includes establishing the system, educating learners how to utilize it and retrieve information, and responding learner inquiries about software difficulties. Nonetheless, the system additionally enables instructors to significantly minimize the time spent evaluating all learners’ assignments, evaluate their knowledge level, and alter instructional techniques accordingly to adapt to students’ requirements [16].

Additionally, these facilities typically encourage instructors to utilize web-based devices to improve course material, encourage their students, enhance communication, and reduce work. For students, there are numerous advantages to using websites for homework assignments. Students have the option to correct their mistakes, produce revised copies for their responses to the assignments on time, and may be encouraged to repeat the exercises until they understand them by receiving quick, personalized feedback [13]. Learners like the ability to quickly discover their assignment score and receive tips to assist them in choosing the best solution, which is only achievable with an online assignment platform [17]. This leads into a favorable association between completion of online assignments and final grade [18]. Finally, this allows for the unpredictability of activities that is expected to diminish students’ dishonesty in duplicating assignments from their classmates [19]. Given the advantages indicated above, online schoolwork has certain cons. For instance, because to the potential of many uploads, trial-and-error submissions may attract learners to predict the solution [20], which stresses the last response instead of the method of generating responses [21].

Numerous aspects of homework, such as frequency, aim, and amount [22] were thoroughly examined over the past few years, but the manner in which homework is received less attention [8, 23 24]. It is important to examine homework format given the rising use of technology in the public classroom, especially the assignment of online homework [8].

The current study conducts a thorough evaluation of the methodological aspects of studies that compared skill-based as well as conceptual types of homework in order to better understand which format enhances students’ performance the most.

2. Methods

The purpose of the current review is to investigate the literature on EFL/ESL homework and provide responses to the following questions:

1. In general, what is the existing papers on EFL/ESL homework?

2. What kinds of assignments have been used to help students?

3. What are the key conceptual types of EFL/ESL homework research?

4. What are the major research concerns and findings of EFL/ESL homework research?

5. What are the primary implications of the EFL/ESL homework research?

A. Identification of studies

A systematic search was conducted using a carefully planned review methodology that specified the studies’ inclusion and exclusion criteria, as well as subsequent data analysis for search strategy and selection criteria. Only research articles around the world and articles using English language were examined, with review papers and brief conference proceedings being excluded. A list of inclusion criteria was used in locating the articles to be used in the research (see Table 1).

This systematic review adhered to the PRISMA principles for data abstraction [25]. A PRISMA flow diagram for the search and inclusion/exclusion processes is presented in Figure 1. Four databases were searched: Web of Science (WoS), ERIC, Google Scholar, and Scopus. “English language” and “homework” were the terms utilized in the searches. These words were picked since “English language homework” is the phrase writers use to identify the style of homework, and “English language homework” was selected since the publications used this term as a classifier after the initial database search. The searches were done between November 5th, 2022 and December 8th, 2022. As search engines, the databases shown in Figure 1 were used. A data extraction table was created to allow for the collection and tabulation of information relevant to the evaluation.

B. Screening

The following inclusion and exclusion criteria were established in order to limit the number of articles (see Table 2). Duplicates (n = 22) were separated, resulting in a total of (n) = 201. Since 179 studies did not meet the inclusion criteria, the total number of publications involved in the study was 37.

C. Eligibility and Inclusion

After rejecting duplicate articles and those that did not fulfill the set inclusion criteria, the chosen studies were examined again, including a review of the abstracts and, if required, the entire papers. A total of 37 papers were assessed and eventually chosen for inclusion in this study once their eligibility was validated in this step. For the subject of risk of bias, not only SSCI journals but also articles in ESCI and sub-category journals were included.

D. Collecting the Data

Web of Science (WoS), ERIC, and Google Scholar were the databases employed in this investigation. The terms “homework,” “assignment,” “English,” and “English language” were entered into the search field. The findings identified 201 linkages. The findings were then filtered based on their accessibility, research paper type, and inclusion and exclusion criteria. 16 publications were eliminated because they were not in article form. The search yielded 93 publications that were unrelated to the focus of the study. After reviewing the articles under the inclusion and exclusion criteria, 13 papers were eliminated since they were not used in EFL classrooms. In conclusion, only 37 publications were chosen from the 201 findings for this study.

E. Assessing the Quality of the Study

The journal articles discovered in Web of Science (WoS), ERIC, Google Scholar, and Scopus would be selected on the basis of the framework criteria to ensure the quality of this study. The criteria for inclusion and exclusion were defined to choose the articles. This would assure the articles’ relevancy while also keeping the study’s focus. Table 2 displays the inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Data pertaining to the sample’s setting was supplied in order to give a complete view of the aspects surrounding the study of the English language homework. This took into account various nations, forms of publishing, language in the form of journal articles, and temporal aspects.

F. Synthesizing the Evidence

The publications were coded individually by the researcher. The coding was led by the research topics, which gave the coder unique aims. The year of release, resource titles, and writer’s location were used to categorize the overall type of published research on English language homework. The research issues (e.g., author/country, student education, main aim), methods (e.g., effectiveness of homework in promoting language skills, homework type (online vs. traditional homework), etc.) were coded as reported in the research articles (see Table 3).

G. Interpreting the Findings

In five sub-sections, this section offers the findings that address the research questions of the study: English language homework, conceptual approaches, research concerns and findings, and implications.

1. Research contributions: Sources More than seventy percent of assignment output was centered in seven nations (see Table 4). China was the most producing country, followed by Japan, Türkiye, Hong Kong, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and Malaysia. The multidisciplinary nature of the publications is emphasized by the periodicals in which they were published. In terms of the affiliations of the articles’ corresponding authors, more than half of them were from Asia.

2. English language skill-based homework types Due to a number of constraints, classroom learning is never sufficient, requiring the after-school project known as homework.

Homework assignments that focus on speaking, listening, reading, and writing, as well as all of their components and skills, were evaluated (see Table 5).

2.1 Speaking-based homework

Speaking-based homework means that speaking skills can be supported through group and individual exercises as homework. This finding is backed by the hypothesis that various ability groups may be given varied effective speaking homework requirements. Individual learning preferences should be considered . According to a study [26], giving Japanese university students oral English assignments makes speaking activities more fun. The tactics they must use for projects will help them improve their speaking abilities. For instance, the speaking assignment for [27] instructed students to use Busuu to apply the TAM (Technology Acceptance Model).

The study also aims to show how aware students of EFL are of contemporary approaches to speaking the language. Similar results were provided by [28], who identified individual and interactive mobile homework as the most important distinguishing factors in speech task performance. Hafour [29] investigated how asynchronous engagement activities and student-created digital media tasks affect the oral language skills of EFL learners. [30] assigned stress to English phrase structures in the speech of Yoruba English language teachers (YELTs) to assess their ability to represent the accentuation of Standard English in Nigeria.

Students who were given the task of creating a video project assignment (VPA) by [31] displayed positive perception, involvement, and achievement. In a similar manner, Brazenas [32] assigned students a television show as homework with the goal of discussing their reactions and interpretations in class the following day.

2.2. Listening-based homework

Homework assignments frequently serve to hone skills such as reading comprehension, speaking and listening comprehension, taking notes, issue solving, prioritizing, and problem solving [33]. Additionally, watching a short video and listening to music at home are excellent ways for students to practice their listening skills [1]. In order to improve listening comprehension and the difficulties students have when listening, [34] looked at the effect of a listening assignment embedded in a metacognitive intervention. Listening exercises were used to compare the relative efficacy of online and paper-based formative listening evaluations in Joyce’s [35] study.

While Kurt’s [36] study examined whether completing technology-mediated tasks improves young EFL learners’ performance on listening comprehension tests, Tsang’s [37] study focused on the effectiveness of repeated input (narrow listening assignments) on students’ oral performance (pronunciation and fluency).

2.3. Reading-based homework

Teachers instruct students to read and research books. In addition, they must answer several questions about the material. The teacher assumes that students’ reading comprehension will improve as a result of the homework. This conclusion is consistent with the notion that homework not only improves students’ grades and knowledge, but can also help students become more proficient in basic academic skills such as reading, writing, and spelling [38]. For example, Janfeshan and Janfeshan [39] asked students to use the Otus program to improve their writing skills in the target language. [40] study focused on Japanese first-year students’ motivation to complete graded online assignments for asynchronous English reading courses offered as part of the COVID -19 epidemic.

The study by Mustafa et al. [41] compared the reading performance of students who received both paper-based vocabulary homework and online vocabulary homework in addition to face-to-face classroom interaction (experimental group) and those who participated only in face-to-face classroom interaction (control group). In a game-based EFL reading course at a Japanese college, students were encouraged to use leaderboards. However, according to Philpott and Son’s [42] study, the leaderboard increased performance only up to the highest reward threshold. Similarly, Reynolds and Shih [43] investigated whether giving adolescent Taiwanese English language learners the homework task of creating and reviewing word cards for unknown words they had unintentionally encountered while reading in class would help them increase their vocabulary.

2.4. Writing-based homework

According to the data in this category, teachers assign homework that requires students to write various formal texts, such as a paper, a biography, a letter of application, a formal letter of invitation, a formal announcement, a conversation in a formal context, and an English speech. This category suggests that teachers believe that students should be assigned different types of written work as homework. According to one view, homework typically focuses on a formal written product.

According to the results of the study by Haake et al. [44], recurrence quantification analysis (RQA) is a useful tool for evaluating keyboarding record data that provides trustworthy and valuable information about the amount of effort an author must put into writing a text. Manalo et al. [45] asked students to use diagrams when writing explanations and showed how diagrams can support students’ explanations. Tasker [46] assigned students writing homework (e.g., text analysis, short text analysis, reading response, etc.) and examined differences in writing assignments across course levels and subfields within a single university department.

2.5. All skills and elements-based homework

One of the goals of homework is to help students improve their language skills [33]. Listening, speaking, reading, and writing are always learned when learning English.

In addition, teachers assign homework that requires students to complete vocabulary exercises. Tasks include matching a term to another word with a similar meaning, selecting words that fit the context of the sentence, and introducing new words discovered in a previously read text. Teachers expect that the tasks will help students improve their fluency. This is consistent with [47] study, which found that students who received homework had a better knowledge of the given terminology.

Teachers assign homework to students to review grammatical concepts acquired through various tasks. The results in this category support the hypothesis that one of the purposes of homework is to reinforce the material covered in class [56]. Another idea that confirms the result is that teachers should assign homework and activities to their students to force them to practice and review the new structure [49].

Al Awabdeh [50] investigated the advantages and disadvantages of utilizing Moodle in language practices. According to his research, Moodle promotes student-centred learning, anytime; anywhere learning, simplifies course management, and alleviates the costs and time pressures associated with delivering less instruction. Albore and Lanka’s [51] study focused on a different aspect, English teachers’ and students’ attitudes toward group work assignments in English classes, and found that the majority of teachers and students were negative toward group work assignments in English classes.

Bayar and Karaduman [52] provided insight into students’ perspectives on the success of the “English” course through distance education. According to students, writing and translation assignments should be issued to students, as well as more writing activities for writing skills and more reading comprehension texts and exercises for reading skill, and technological barriers for speaking skill should be removed. [53] studied the use of mobile technologies in college English vocabulary teaching tasks in similar vein. Bensalem [54] invited students to utilize WhatsApp to investigate the evolution of students’ academic vocabulary knowledge.

Repetto et al. [55] challenged students to use a unique type of IVR, immersive 360° films, which were accessed through a smartphone and cardboard. Hao [56] created an online teaching platform for a college English course using the Internet. Karatas and Tuncer [57] examined the effects of emergency distance learning for language skill development. EDE was rated as most effective for writing skills and least beneficial for speaking skills by learners.

Writing was the most cultivated, according to participants, as it was used for almost all coursework, assignments, and projects. Similarly, Liao [58] found in his research that an English online task evaluation process had excellent noise processing and knowledge credibility calculation capabilities, as well as greater evaluation capacity for low-noise data. Xiong et al. [59] used an online English homework evaluation method to solve the problem of plagiarism ratio in students’ English homework.

In the study by Khonamri et al. [60], learners indicated that most of their difficulties were caused by specific factors, such as not learning the required concept, not recognizing the instruction, not enjoying the homework, not being interested, not understanding the homework instruction, anxiety, and homework stress. In Moorhouse’s [62] study, participants rated eight skills to practice or develop in homework, ranked from most common (1) to least common (8). The most common skill was ’grammar,’ while the least common was listening. Habits of giving homework, on the other hand, affect teacher autonomy.

In Moorhouse’s [62] study, two teachers were interviewed separately; one felt overburdened and unable to be the kind of teacher she wished, whereas the other teacher saw the behaviors as typical and a necessary part of her duty to assign assignments. Study [63] found no relationship between student performance on online homework and self-efficacy, perceived responsibility, or motivation level; however, relevant relationships were found between self-efficacy and perceived responsibility and self-efficacy and motivation level. In a similar study, [53] discovered significant participant issues regarding online EFL teaching and learning, such as students’ low self-discipline and visual impairment, a lack of face-to-face connection, and unreliable network availability.

Rodrguez-Fuentes and Swatek [64] investigated the impact of several types of homework materials on students’ grammatical proficiency. Singh et al. [65 investigated the types of homework offered by English teachers as well as the time spent on them. According to the findings, the most popular homework assignments were essay writing, reading, and copying texts, while projects were the least prevalent.

3. Homework Conceptual Types

The coding method revealed three-dimensional conceptual types. Table 6 summarizes traditional, online, and online vs. traditional concept type homework.

3.1. Traditional concept type homework

When the conceptual types of homework were assessed, 11 articles were under the traditional concept type. According to [57], homework assignments can be used for a variety of educational goals, including giving students the chance to review subjects they learned in class [52]. Conventional homework, commonly referred to as paper and pencil-based homework (PPH), includes students working on issues outside of the classroom and turning in their solutions after a set period of time. Before submitting their homework and receiving the instructor’s responses, PPH students are unable to verify if their answers are accurate. In PPH, the homework assignments are typically graded by paid graders, which might introduce subjectivity and heterogeneity.

Online homework can solve these problems by giving an immediate response and dealing with the requirement for paid graders [56]. For control and experimental groups, homework assignments were organized, particularly for the traditional concept type. For instance, the findings from the pretest, post-test, and delayed test in [64] study revealed that groups exhibited considerable improvements in their comprehension of the desired construct. Similar to this, implicit learning appeared to aid students in honing their writing abilities in Nakagawa and Leung’s [66] study, but the effects may vary across students with various degrees of English ability.

3.2. Online concept type homework

Previous research has found that using web-based homework instead of traditional paper and pencil homework produces positive results. Students’ reactions to online homework are largely positive, although diverse. In non-accounting situations, there is some evidence that computer-assisted learning may improve student attitudes toward their course of study as well as their perceptions of course quality and structure [54]. It was discovered, for example, that there are good effects of using Moodle during English lessons [50].

According to Karataş and Tuncer [57], in a preliminary study on motivation in an online classroom setting, students report that online homework enables them to comprehend material and prepare for their exams. The majority of them preferred online homework. This view is supported by research by Brazenas [32] and Bayar and Karaduman [52], who report that the majority of the students in their experimental study group who complete their assignments online view this practice favorably. Similar internet-based teaching strategies, for instance the use of specific IVR, such as immersive 360° films, can be beneficial to both students and teachers in terms of encouraging inquiry [55].

3.3 Online vs traditional concept type homework

Many higher education students nowadays take one or more online courses, as online education has significantly increased [67]. Online classes are unquestionably well-suited to online homework completion. These two appear to be inseparable. Students routinely drop schoolwork into a virtual drop box, and instructors grade the contributions.

As a result, both online homework and pen-and-paper assignment completion are realistic choices for traditional classrooms, hybrid classrooms, and online environments. To save money, minimize expenditures for the university, boost “efficiency,” and somewhat counterbalance onerous workloads and other obligations allocated to faculty, homework is regularly assigned online. Proper consideration of the benefits and drawbacks of online homework is essential, as is ensuring the purpose is reasonable and in the best interests of the students.

Hafour [29] discovered any noticeable difference in better strength between online homework users and non-users, having high performing students at it or near their GPA regardless of whether they utilize online homework. According to Philpott and Son [42], highly intrinsically motivated students will perform well using either the online or traditional systems. Processes for assigning homework are unlikely to increase students’ motivation. They decrease students’ ability to be highly motivated.

Online homework, as well as other alternative teaching methods such as quizzes, in-class activities, test-retest, and other collaborative learning activities, may aid low intrinsically motivated students [40, 27]. In addition to students, teachers benefit from the convenience of online assignment monitoring and marking [35].

4. Research concerns and results

The primary findings of the papers included in this review are presented in this section. Firstly, the overall picture will be analyzed, with each study reporting on the efficacy of online vs. traditional homework formats in terms of advantages to student performance and for each variable. Secondly, these findings will be presented in relation to the course domain of each study, particularly at the college level.

4.1. Benefits for students’ performance

Measures of student success in the numerous studies were retention of learning, test and final examination, completed homework assignments, overall performance, pre and posttest measures while evaluating homework assignments completed using paper and pencil. The study findings of each individual study were divided into three categories: positive, neutral, and negative. Five studies that looked at paper-pencil homework discovered a significant and stable link between doing homework and academic success, and these studies highlighted the advantages of homework [44, 45, 61, 64, 65].

Furthermore, it is widely assumed that homework is an essential part of English language teaching and that it plays a significant part in reinforcing and consolidating what children learned at school, as well as in increasing their skills. However, four studies were classified as “neutral,” suggesting that traditional paper and pen homework had no substantial or modest impact in these trials [39, 60, 61, 66].

Finally, two studies were classified as negative [30]. However, the choice of assignment schemes may have an impact on student learning. For example, [51] discovered that students displayed a negative point of view toward group work assignments in English language classrooms in a study done in 2018. They did not behave in accordance with their views as a result of the students’ lack of interest, motivation, and awareness. When comparing online homework, it is not a passive addition toward class; it alters the learning environment and are never neutral. Within the studies, 17 articles were related to the effects of online assignments on achievement. Some studies claim that online homework improves students’ academic achievement [32, 37, 50, 53] sense of responsibility and study habits [31, 34, 55, 57] as well as, motivation [40].

When homework was scored or verified, as well as when teachers provided detailed online comments for each task, it was thought to be advantageous [44, 56, 58, 59]. Two studies were categorized as neutral. In other words, they offer similar learning achievement results both prior to and after the setup of online activities [43, 52].

Finally, one study was labeled unfavorable due to students’ vision impairment, lack of self-discipline, absence of face-to-face interaction, and inconsistent Internet connectivity when completing online homework [53].

When contrasting online assignment with homework that was completed with paper and pencil, the authors of a separate study examined and contrasted students’ performance using a variety of measurements. The conclusions of each study were categorized as good, neutral, or negative. Five studies were exclusively classified as positive, indicating that the online homework group outperformed the traditional homework group on all metrics [28, 29, 35, 54]. As measures, the majority of these researches used tests, final grades, or completed homework assignments. Furthermore, one study was classified as neutral, indicating that both the online and traditional groups performed similarly in the evaluation [39].

Finally, one study was classified as negative [41], which means that the online homework group performed worse than the traditional homework group on the selected measures (homework completion and overall performance).

4.2. Course skill domain

Studies were categorized by course skill domain in order to better comprehend the important findings, and the conclusions were then extrapolated from there. The purpose is to ascertain whether any inferences can be drawn from the investigations’ skill domain. As a result, five domains were examined (speaking, listening, reading, writing, and homework assignments based on all skills and elements), and three separate studies were disregarded from this analysis: the engineering research [18], and two studies that used non-college samples [20] (See Table 3).

4.2.1 Course skill domain. Speaking.

There are six studies on speaking , five of which showed positive outcomes [27, 28, 29, 31] and one that did not explain the format of the customary homework answer [30]. Furthermore, three research examined students’ attitudes about online assignments [27, 31, 32]. All favored the online method over the traditional homework style [28]. The authors of these studies reached a favorable conclusion on the use of online homework as the chosen method of assignment distribution because their studies revealed disparities in students’ communication performance.

Besides from the effectiveness of skill-based homework in language learning, this overview of research on language learning homework identified a crucial issue. Online homework facilitated speaking skill more than other types of homework did [27, 28, 31]. This is most likely due to increased exposure to the target language through mobile or computer-based applications, resulting in higher learning outcomes. And web-based homework induced a larger engagement load because learners were more motivated to use online applications homework and were given learning activities that included evaluation of learning achievement [31].

4.2.2 Course skill domain. Listening.

There are four studies in the domain of listening, with showing positive effects [34, 35, 37, 39]. Furthermore, this research examined students’ attitudes toward online homework style. One study found that the online format was preferable to the traditional homework style [35]. One study was critical of the online format and preferred traditional homework to online homework [39].

These researchers concentrated on language learners’ listening-based homework while improving listening skills through the use of online applications and websites (e.g., the BBC news website, Moodle), and they all reported that these online tools resulted in higher motivation than other approaches [34, 37].

4.2.3 Course skill domain. Reading

Reading-based online homework resulted in a higher participation load because learners had stronger motivation and learner autonomy to complete tasks, as well as intrinsic motivation [40]. The use of leaderboards in a gamified environment, in particular, in Philpott and Son’s [42] study, encouraged performance up to the highest reward threshold, and the leaderboard moved internal extrinsic motivation to external extrinsic motivation, reducing intrinsic motivation.

4.2.4 Course skill domain. Writing

The course domain of writing is supported by four classic type studies, three of which achieved positive findings [44]. Furthermore, this research examined students’ attitudes toward the online homework style [44]. According to Manalo et al.’s [45] research, different forms of diagrams had more interactions in traditional reading-based homework. Furthermore, in Nakagawa and Leung’s [66] study, implicit learning appeared to assist students acquire writing abilities, but the impact may vary across students with varying degrees of English proficiency.

4.2.5 Course skill domain. All skills and elements-based homework

There are nine studies in the course domain all skills and elements-based homework, with showing positive outcomes [50, 53, 56, 58, 59, 64]. Furthermore, these studies examined students’ attitudes toward online homework style [53, 56, 59].

One study found the online format of all skills and aspects-based homework to be beneficial [50, 55, 58] . Repetto et al. [55] proposed employing a specific type of IVR, immersive 360° movies, experienced through a smartphone, for online language homework.

Three studies [52, 57, 63] reported negative findings about the online format of all skills and element-based homework. Students expressed in semi-structured interviews that doing online homework in distance education means education using technology, education as a result of the pandemic, inefficient, insufficient education, and waste of time for students, but at the same time they have useful, more fun, and attention-grabbing in learning English [52]. In another study, [57] discovered that the best online assignment skill was writing, while the worst was speaking. Writing was developed the most, according to respondents, because it was utilized for essentially all academics, assignments, and projects. However, in online classes and homework projects, speaking skill was neglected. Neither self-efficacy, perceived responsibility, nor motivation were found to be related to how well students performed on online assignments according to [63]. However, there were notable correlations between self-efficacy and perceived responsibility as well as self-efficacy and motivation levels.

One study found the online format of all skills and elements-based homework to be negative [53]. Significant participant issues about online language assignments, including students’ poor self-discipline, visual impairment, absence of face-to-face interaction, and erratic Internet connectivity were revealed.

One study found that the online format was positive to the traditional assignment style [54]. According to [54] study, the experimental group who did online academic vocabulary knowledge utilizing WhatsApp outperformed the traditional paper-pen type control group on a vocabulary test. The findings show that students participate in Facebook assignments at a moderate-to-high level, and that engagement in these activities is determined by reward, effort, the study environment, and workload from other topics.

In another study, asked students to do their language homework on Facebook. The results of his study showed that due to time-space independence, platform familiarity, and the potential for time savings, Facebook homework is seen as being more convenient than traditional paper-based homework.

One traditional study found homework to be positive and beneficial [64]. They proposed using several types of homework resources, such as corpus-informed (CI) materials, to improve students’ grammatical performance.

Four traditional studies found homework to be neutral [60, 61, 62, 65].

Students, in particular, showed a favorable attitude toward homework assignments. Furthermore, the findings suggested that students had some difficulties completing homework tasks. They indicated that the majority of the problems are caused by certain factors, such as failing to grasp the necessary concept, not understanding the assignment, not enjoying the homework, failing to pay attention, not understanding the assignment, and worrying and stress brought on by the homework [61, 62]. Students’ vocabulary, grammar, reading, and writing skills were found to be enhanced by the assignments in [61, 62]. However, there was less emphasis placed on speaking and listening skills, which are crucial for improving learners’ communication skills.

This is also consistent with the findings of online homework, which revealed that these two abilities are largely overlooked in foreign language training [52, 57]. The Singh et al. [65 found that teachers tended to provide drill-based activities and ignored projects because of time constraints.

One study found group work assignments in language classrooms to be unfavorable [51]. As a result of the students’ lack of interest, motivation, and awareness, learners did not act in accordance with their attitudes.

3. Research Implications

The research of English language homework provided light on both traditional and online language learning, as well as skill-based design. Eleven research out of 37 claimed or implied that online language homework promoted effective language acquisition (i.e. [31, 32, 37, 40, 50, 53]). The results of five studies revealed that interactions in paper and pencil homework were favorable to language acquisition [44, 45, 61, 62, 64, 65]. Five studies were exclusively classified as positive, indicating that the online homework group outperformed the traditional homework group on all measures [28].

Specifically, Philpott and Son [44] suggested that homework that give students the chance to compete and engage with peers [50] result in significantly higher learning outcomes than those with less interactivity [51]. Repetto et al. [55] found that students who learned with online homework significantly outperformed those who simply learned by watching 360° videos in terms of both video comprehension and vocabulary learning. As a result, they suggested that interactivity in language input is necessary for effective learning while also suggesting that interactions with multimodalities can be achieved by integrating interactivities.

Similarly, Reynolds & Shih [43] promote intragroup competition and intergroup collaboration as powerful strategies for improving underprivileged students’ academic achievements and decreasing the achievement gap with high-achieving students. Active participation, continuous engagement, equal participation, immediate interaction, heterogeneous collaboration, and resource interdependence are the six key components Janfeshan & Janfeshan [39] proposed for the development of an effective interactive environment with application among face-to-face classrooms, educational games, and handheld devices. To increase learner motivation and guarantee active participation in homework assignments, a clear aim and difficulties are crucial.

They claimed that in order to keep students engaged, it is important to maintain a positive mood while concentrating on finding solutions to problems that arise during play and learning [27]. They promote the development of online applications that can be used on affordable devices so that any learner may engage since the use of applications allowed each student an equal opportunity to participate in the assignment and communicate with peers. Therefore, a well-structured collection of educational resources, handheld devices, and mobile technologies can give students quick peer feedback and equal access to educational opportunities [27].

Challenging students’ language abilities should be included in homework design because it has been discovered that requiring a high cognitive load tends to encourage effective learning, but the level should be appropriate [35]. When planning homework, it is also critical to incorporate clear learning objectives, implement suitable learning methodologies, and provide scaffolding [32]. [40] added that including learner autonomy strategies into homework is critical for generating a low-anxiety teaching environment and enhancing learners’ immersion level and intrinsic motivation.

Furthermore, Al Awabdeh, [50] and Mohamed et al. [31] emphasized the relevance of relieving anxiety through support tools, arguing that anxiety might improve motivation and involvement among students. However, Philpott and Son [42] argued that expected learning gains had a greater impact on cognitive performance than feelings of enjoyment and that intrinsic motivation had very little bearing on students’ learning outcomes, suggesting that progress lines are necessary to activate learners’ cognitive engagement.

4. Conclusion

The current study examined 37 articles on English language homework from the following perspectives: general sources of English language homework publications, English language homework, conceptual approaches, research concerns and outcomes, and further implications. It was discovered that English language homework has gained increased attention from educators, despite the fact that there have been only a few studies on the subject so far.

Overall, there is no clear agreement on which homework structure benefits students the best in terms of academic progress. There is consensus, nevertheless, when other types of indicators are taken into consideration, such as student perceptions and the authors’ findings in the current selection of studies, which online homework encourages student involvement and performance more than traditional homework does. Participants and authors of this sample of studies concur that online homework stimulates students to complete the tasks, despite the need for more thorough study comparing the impact of homework format on student achievement. Given that school engagement is a significant predictor of academic advancement, this finding should not be disregarded [68].

Thus, if students consistently believe that online homework improves deeper learning and greater academic success, this can be a strong argument in favor of using this assignment format.

A significant majority of studies have been undertaken from the education component, particularly from the university context, and various education concepts have been used as skill-based homework in the research on English language homework.

Three forms of English language homework were researched (traditional, online, and traditional versus online), and the research results generally demonstrated that homework promoted short- and long-term language learning.

Online homework has been shown to help with language skills and abilities, reading and listening comprehension, comprehension improvement, and other aspects. In addition to being less stressed, learners were considered to be more motivated, more engaged, and involved in more interactions than those who learnt in other traditional ways.

Limitations

Even though there have only been a few studies on English language homework, they have produced insightful results and significant implications. In conclusion, the study only looked at publications about English language homework which Articles were searched through Web of Science (WoS), ERIC, Google Scholar, and Scopus therefore, the results were preliminary. The results would undoubtedly be more comprehensive if more papers from a wider variety of sources were added. For more results that can be more broadly applied, future studies may go in this direction. This comprehensive overview emphasizes the importance of researching this subject in primary school.

Future research may examine online homework at all school types in light of the significant investments made in recent years to fully unlock elementary and secondary schools with technology, as well as the widespread use of the internet and technological products. These findings may help boost the effectiveness of homework as a strategy to encourage student involvement and productivity, notably at the middle school level, in which there is a lower correlation between traditional homework and performance than at other grade levels [12].

Funding

There was no specific grant for this research from a public, private, or nonprofit organization.